Removal of TBP From Aqueous Phase

Removal of TBP From Aqueous Phase ABSTRACT PUREX process involves the use of 30% TBP in Dodecane to extract the fissile materials. However, due to mutual solubility some amount of TBP gets transferred into the aqueous phase. This transferred TBP leads to many environmental problems. Removal of this TBP from aqueous phase is of prime concern which can be done by contacting it with an organic diluent. UNIFAC and Uniquac methods have been used to describe Liquid Liquid equilibrium (LLE) in TBP-Diluent-HNO3 system. Uniquac and UNIFAC Group interaction parameters have been founded to fit the experimental data. Various metal nitrates are also present in the organic phase. These metal nitrates affect the solubility of TBP in aqueous phase. Metal nitrates like Sodium and Calcium nitrate have also been incorporated in model to find out interaction parameters in the presence of metal nitrates like Sodium and Calcium. The obtained parameters will be useful in predicting LLE for the above system and will aid in safe disposal of nuclear w aste. INTRODUCTION Reprocessing of the used nuclear fuel has always been carried out to reduce the volume of high level radioactive waste and also for their safe disposal. The plutonium uranium extraction (PUREX) process is widely used for reprocessing. This process uses 30% Tri-n-butyl phosphate (TBP) in an inert paraffinic diluent for the separation of uranium and plutonium from the aqueous phase containing nitric acid. Mutual solubility of aqueous and the organic phase leads to the transfer of certain finite amount of TBP in aqueous phase. This transferred TBP decomposes very slowly in the presence of water and nitric acid by hydrolysis to lower organo-phosphate acids at normal operating temperatures leading to many environmental problems. Removal of such dissolved TBP is of direct interest in reprocessing processes as this would enable manifold evaporation of aqueous stream without harming the environment. Various metal elements are also present in the highly radioactive liquid waste solution in ni trate form. The salting out of TBP takes place in the presence of these inorganic nitrates in the aqueous phase. Studies in the presence of various metal nitrates will aid in efficient removal of TBP from aqueous phase. In order to predict the extent to which TBP could be removed from aqueous phase, a model must be developed to predict the phase behaviour. Such models can be used for designing remediation projects. Estimation of activity coefficients of the mixtures is important for predicting the phase behaviour In order to predict the extent of mass transfer, chemical compositions of the two-phase system at equilibrium needs be predicted first. Investigators have used various models to predict the LLE. Cheng et al. have calculated the thermodynamic equilibrium constant for the system HNO3-TBP-n-C7H16.The activity coefficient of nitric acid was calculated using Pitzer’s equation and those of the components in organic phase was derived from experimental data. Ding et al. have calculated the activity coefficient for 20 binary and 7 ternary systems composed of nC6H14, nC7H16, nC8H18, C6H6, cy-C6H6, CCl4, CHCl3, (C4H9)3PO4 and UO2(NO3)2.2((C4H9)3PO4) using head-space gas chromatography. The results are compared with Scatchard-Hilderbald, NRTL and UNIQUAC models. Li et al. has calculated the Vapor-Liquid and Vapor-Liquid-Liquid equilibria of 19 tributyl phosphate systems. Aqueous phase activity coefficients are calculated using Pitzer’s equation. UNIFAC method is used for correlating and predicting the data in organic phase. All the above authors have done work on the systems in the absence of metal nitrates. Intera ction parameters for systems in the presence of metal nitrates have not been reported yet. The objective of the present work to find the UNIFAC and Uniquac group interaction parameters regressed for the experimental data for three systems. These systems comprise of TBP-diluent-HNO3, TBP-diluent-HNO3-NaNO3, TBP-diluent-HNO3-Ca(NO3)2. These parameters will aid in predicting the equilibrium and calculating the number of stages for designing the equipment to remove dissolved TBP. LIQUID LIQUID EXTRACTION EQUILIBRIA The organic phase consists of (1) diluent (NPH), (2) TBP, (3) TBP.HNO3 The dissolution of TBP in NPH and HNO3 can be represented by eq 1and eq 2. xTBPorg (TBP)x org(1) TBPorg + H+aq + NO3-aq HNO3.TBPorg (2) where the subscripts aq and org denote the species in the aqueous and organic phase. The thermodynamic equilibrium constant for reaction (2) can be calculated as a HNO3.TBP(org) a 3 (3) K == a H+(aq) a NO3-(aq) a TBP(org)a2 ±HNO3 a 2 x3 ÃŽ ³3 K = (4) m ±2 ÃŽ ³Ã‚ ±2 x2 ÃŽ ³2 where a is the thermodynamic activity, x is the mole fraction of the component in the organic phase and ÃŽ ³ is the corresponding activity coefficient. m ± is the mean molality concentration of electrolyte in the aqueous phase and ÃŽ ³Ã‚ ± is the mean ionic activity coefficient of corresponding electrolytes. Similar procedure as described by Chen et al has been used to predict the LLE with one extraction reaction. Mean ionic activity coefficient of electrolytes Pitzer equation is used to calculate the mean ionic coefficient of HNO3 in all the cases and of Ca(NO3)2, NaNO3 in the presence of metal nitrates. lnÃŽ ³Ã‚ ± = Aà Ã‚ ¤+ m (5) where b=1.2, ÃŽ ±=2, AÉ ¸ = 0.391. I is the ionic strength of solution. The Pitzer parameters for HNO3, NaNO3 and Ca(NO3)2 are listed in Table 1. Activity Coefficients of components in organic phase can be estimated using UNIFAC and Uniquac equation. UNIFAC EQUATION In a multi-component mixture, the UNIFAC equation for the activity coefficient of component i is given by Equation 3.1. ln ÃŽ ³i = ln ÃŽ ³iC +ln ÃŽ ³iR (6) The combinatorial part of the UNIFAC model considers the shape and the size of the molecules in the mixture. ln ÃŽ ³iC = 1 – Ji + ln Ji – 5qi( ln (É ¸i /ÃŽËœi )+ 1 – (É ¸i /ÃŽËœi ) ) (7) where, Ji = ( É ¸i /xi) The molecule volume fraction É ¸i , and the molecule surface area fraction ÃŽËœi , are given by respectively, É ¸i = xi*ri/∑j xj*rj and ÃŽËœi = xi*qi/∑j xj*qj (8) In Equations (3.3), relative molecular volume rs, and relative molecule surface area q, are given by ri = ∑k ÃŽ ½k(i)* Rk and qi = ∑k ÃŽ ½k(i)* Qk (9) The quantity vk is the number of subgroups of type k in a molecule of species i. ri is the relative molecular volume and qi is the relative molecular surface area. Group parameters Rk and Qk are reported by Fredenslund et al. The residual part of the activity coefficient is given by Equation 10. ln ÃŽ ³iR = ∑k ÃŽ ½k(i )[ ln à Ã¢â‚¬Å"k – ln à Ã¢â‚¬Å"k(i) ] (10) where, k denotes each group in the mixture ÃŽ ½k(i ) is the number of groups of type k in molecule i à Ã¢â‚¬Å"k is the group residual activity coefficient à Ã¢â‚¬Å"k(i) is the residual activity coefficient of group k in a reference solution containing only molecules of type i. The group residual activity coefficient is found by Equation 11. ln à Ã¢â‚¬Å"k = Qk [ 1- ln(∑m ÃŽËœm ψmk) ∑m (ÃŽËœm ψkm /∑n ÃŽËœn ψnm ) ] (11) where, Qk is a group surface area parameter ÃŽËœm is the area fraction of group m ψmn is the group energy of interaction parameter ψmn = exp(-amn + bmn/T) (12) Where, amn and bmn is the group-interaction parameter. T is the temperature Group assignment as proposed by Chen et al. has been followed. C7H16, TBP and TBP.HNO3 has been broken down into groups CH3, CH2, (CH2O)3PO, HNO3.(CH2O)3PO. Group volume and surface parameters for above groups have been reported by Cheng et al. The UNIQUAC model thus consists of two terms: a combinatorial or entropic term, a residual or enthalpic term. The combinatorial and the residual terms are identical to the terms used in the traditional UNIQUAC equation. The combinatorial, entropic term is ln ÃŽ ³iC = ln(É ¸i/xi) +1 (É ¸i/xi) – (z/2)*qi [ ln(É ¸i/ÃŽËœi) + 1- (É ¸i/ÃŽËœi) ] (13) z = 10 is the co-ordination number. xi is the mole fraction, É ¸i is the volume fraction, ÃŽËœi and is the surface area fraction of component i. É ¸i = xi*ri/∑j xj*rj and ÃŽËœi = xi*qi/∑j xj*qj (14) ri and qi are volume and surface area parameters for component i. The residual, enthalpic term is ln ÃŽ ³iR = qi [ 1 – ln( ∑k ÃŽËœkψki) ∑k ÃŽËœkψik/(∑l ÃŽËœlψlk) (15) The parameter ψki is given by ψki = exp(-uki-uii/T) (16) uki and uii are interaction energy parameters. Uniquac r and q parameters for C7H16, TBP and TBP.HNO3 have been reported by Li et al. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION EQUILIBRIUM PREDICTION. The following equations can be used to predict equilibrium x1 + x2 + x3 = 1 (17) x20 = (x2 + x3)/( x1 + x2 + x3) (18) x3 ÃŽ ³3 K = (19) m ±2 ÃŽ ³Ã‚ ±2 x2 ÃŽ ³2 ÃŽ ³2 and ÃŽ ³3 values have been calculated using UNIFAC and Uniquac equation. Knowing equilibrium constant K, m ± calculated mole fractions can be found out., The group interaction parameters are regressed by Least Square Technique to minimize the error between experimental and calculated mole fraction values. The obtained regressed group interaction values in the absence of metal nitrates, in the presence of NaNO3 and Ca(NO3)2 using Uniquac and UNIFAC have been listed in Table. The standard absolute deviation of components in the organic phase is listed in table. The experimental and calculated values of mole fractions have been reported graphically in fig CONCLUSION The experimental mole fraction data were correlated using UNIFAC and Uniquac model. The Uniquac and UNIFAC group interaction parameters are capable of predicting mole fraction for TBP-Diluent-HNO3 in the absence and presence of metal nitrates. Thus these can be effectively used to predict the equilibrium for the removal of dissolved TBP in Nuclear engineering. UNIFAC gives a better prediction as compared to Uniquac in all the cases LIST OF TABLES Pitzer parameters for calculation of mean ionic activity coefficient Uniquac Group interaction parameters in the absence of metal nitrates Unifac Group interaction parameters in the absence of metal nitrates Uniquac Group interaction parameters in the presence of Sodium metal nitrate Unifac Group interaction parameters in the presence of sodium nitrate Uniquac Group interaction parameters in the presence of calcium metal nitrate Unifac Group interaction parameters in the presence of calcium nitrate Standard absolute deviations between predicted and experimental mole fraction of extracted complexes Table 1. Pitzer parameters for calculation of mean ionic activity coefficient Components ÃŽ ²o ÃŽ ²o HNO3 0.1119 0.3206 0.001 NaNO3 0.0068 0.1783 -0.0007 Ca(NO3) 0.2108 1.409 -0.02014 Table 2. Uniquac Group interaction parameters in the absence of metal nitrates a (m,n) NPH TBP HNO3.TBP NPH 0 2.05741 0.679624 TBP -3.04549 0 -1.1645 HNO3.TBP -1.03328 1.143979 0 b (m,n) NPH TBP HNO3.TBP NPH 0 1.007842 0.999125 TBP 0.983532 0 1.095824 HNO3.TBP 0.993173 1.019649 0 Table 3. Unifac Group interaction parameters in the absence of metal nitrates a (m,n) CH2 CH3 (CH2O)3PO HNO3(CH2O)3PO CH2 0 0 2.56180892 -48.1996 CH3 0 0 2.56180892 -48.1996 (CH2O)3PO -5.15816 -5.15816 0 -6.13375 HNO3(CH2O)3PO -2.57271 -2.57271 34.781685 0 b (m,n) CH2 CH3 (CH2O)3PO HNO3(CH2O)3PO CH2 0 0 0.997309 1.126187 CH3 0 0 0.997309 1.126187 (CH2O)3PO 1.016819 1.016819 0 1.131422 HNO3(CH2O)3PO 1.015345 1.015345 0.890301 0 Table 4. Uniquac Group interaction parameters in the presence of Sodium metal nitrate a (m,n) NPH TBP HNO3.TBP NPH 0 -1.82623 6.863001 TBP 0.87821 0 0.552002 HNO3.TBP 1.380676 2.272663 0 b (m,n) NPH TBP HNO3.TBP NPH 0 0.990771 1.019671 TBP 0.999592 0 0.998537 HNO3.TBP 1.001281 1.004269 0 Table 5. Unifac Group interaction parameters in the presence of sodium nitrate a (m,n) CH2 CH3 (CH2O)3PO HNO3(CH2O)3PO CH2 0 0 0.742770 -0.6378 CH3 0 0 0.742770 -0.6378 (CH2O)3PO 1.096426 1.096426 0 -0.373895 HNO3(CH2O)3PO 0.748111 0.748111 -0.20966206 0 b (m,n) CH2 CH3 (CH2O)3PO HNO3(CH2O)3PO CH2 0 0 1.000835 1.005434 CH3 0 0 1.000833 1.005434 (CH2O)3PO 0.99968 0.999688 0 1.004477 HNO3(CH2O)3PO 1.000817 1.000818 1.003927 0 Table 6. Uniquac Group interaction parameters in the presence of Calcium metal nitrate a (m,n) NPH TBP HNO3.TBP NPH 0 0.3249 -0.4026 TBP 0.95221 0 -1.40706 HNO3.TBP 1.168545 1.39797 0 b (m,n) NPH TBP HNO3.TBP NPH 0 0.997878 0.99529 TBP 0.999836 0 0.99200 HNO3.TBP 1.00058 1.000138 0 Table 7. Unifac Group interaction parameters in the presence of calcium nitrate a (m,n) CH2 CH3 (CH2O)3PO HNO3(CH2O)3PO CH2 0 0 5.9429 2.14979 CH3 0 0 5.9429 2.14979 (CH2O)3PO 2.6932 2.6932 0 -2.59369 HNO3(CH2O)3PO 3.8889 3.8889 3.8740 0 b (m,n) CH2 CH3 (CH2O)3PO HNO3(CH2O)3PO CH2 0 0 0.9839 0.99622 CH3 0 0 0.9839 0.99622 (CH2O)3PO 0.99447 0.99447 0 1.011186 HNO3(CH2O)3PO 0.990612 0.990612 0.990633 0 Table 8. Standard absolute deviations between predicted and experimental mole fraction of extracted complexes. System Δ x (Uniquac) Δ x (Unifac) HNO3/TBP/Diluent 0.016 0.0051 HNO3/TBP/Diluent/NaNO3 0.0435 0.0429 HNO3/TBP/Diluent/Ca(NO3)2 0.015 0.0051

According to Paul Cezanne Essay

Paul Cezanne’s paintings are regarded today as being of considerable importance to the development of modern art. Cezanne’s use of colour as tone and his heavy interest in the formal elements of composition paved the way for artists following on from him to question what they were perceiving and their ability to visually represent what they saw through painting. This essay will be examining the influence that Paul Cezanne had on Cubism and how this elevated the picture into an autonomous object rather than a mere representation of nature. The French Post-Impressionist painter Paul Cezanne, although heavily ignored by the mainstream art sphere centered within Paris, had a considerable impact on Cubism as he laid out the fundamental ideas from which the cubists would create their works. One of the main key points that was central to the cubists was faceting, this reduction of form within the external world and transforming them to geometrical facets, ‘Nature should be treated as cylinders, spheres and cones.’. See more: Examples of satire in adventures of huckfinn essay Cezanne’s manner of depicting reality with inaccuracy and multiple viewpoints divorced itself from the laws of perceptive construction and allowed him to interpret what he saw in a subjective way, he wasn’t interested in merely imitating what he saw onto the canvas but rather to re-think the conventions which restrict traditional painting. A clear departure from traditional painting as a representational phenomenon has taken place, it’s no longer mimetic of nature or reality but rather holds its own reality within itself and painting and art in general is made autonomous through Cezanne’s unique approach. Where other painters saw transient effects of light Cezanne had the ability to perceive geometric structures and thus from his search for underlying structure of composition came Cubism and then Abstraction. In the impressionist movement, and other predecessors to cubism and post-impressionism, artists weren’t concerned in dealing with matters of inner meaning within their paintings, they were simply responding to what they saw which in turn gave little for the viewer to think about. It is here that we see Cezanne’s more conceptual manner of depicting reality by breaking things into obscure shapes and abstracted form, he projects his inner emotion and consciousness onto the canvas to represent a state of mind, ‘The painter’s idea cannot be conceived apart from the means he uses, for it is meaningful only so far as it is embodied in those means, and the deeper his idea the more complete they must be. I am unable to distinguish between my feelings for life and my way of transposing it. A painting must carry all its meanings within itself, and impose it on the viewer before he identifies the subject matter.’. This parallel of representing nature and self by use of facets and high-keyed colour (colour as a subjective device) is something that’s echoed throughout the works of the cubists, specifically the initial stages of this movement. It seems from this point onwards the painting has become a picture object, it’s removed from the shallow confines of our perception and begins to contribute to reality by adding other aspects and elements, ‘ He was, in fact, the first Post-Impressionist to make, as did the Pointillists and eventually the cubists, as structural analysis of nature, producing an art of the mind concerned with emotional apprehension of formal qualities in mountains, women or onions and totally unconcerned with the evanescent effects of light, shade and atmosphere.’ . This manner of painting had seeped into the consciousness of Pablo Picasso and George Braque, although they had obviously added their own elements to form their own individual styles Ceza nne had laid out the basis from which the cubists could build upon. Although Cubism can be categorised into three key phases: Analytical, Hermetic and Synthetic, it is all somewhat representational of reality. Pushed and stretched to its very limits reality has been distorted and forms are no longer instantly apparent, the viewer must project apart of themselves in order to make sense of what is happening within the painting. From the painters view the cubists applied an aspect of analysis in their paintings by which forms became increasingly fragmented, this way of depicting objects, landscapes and people was similar to Cezanne’s work in the way he represented nature. He was looking beyond the mere surface and impressions which met his gaze and focussed on the inner structures that made up things around him, this of course implies careful consideration and a process of analysis. This is something which resonated with Picasso’s work and contributed to his painting Demoiselles d’ Avingon 1908, ‘He took his cue in this partly from Cezanne’s efforts to fashion a way of painting that would lay bare – or at least open up for exploration by the viewer – the complex process of pictorial representation’. Upon looking at the works of Picasso’s Demoiselles d’ Avingon 1908 and even George Braque’s Houses at L’Estaque 1908, we can indicate a clear influence that is derived from Cezanne’s style of this alignment of nature and the artist. In Braque’s painting we note a visible colour palette which has been simplified and the use of structure that has been used in order to re-create nature, all of which is comparable to Cezanne’s painting Mont Sainte-Victoire 1902-04. However, Braque has accentuated certain elements resulting in a more systematic , clean and simplified style, ‘Yet unlike Cezanne, Braque pushes the juxtaposition of different perspectives to the point of contradiction, and underscores it with a quite arbitrary distribution of light and shade; rooflines fail to meet walls, spaces and solids are elided, buildings are stacked up against one another like playing cards, and in the absence of a horizon the landscape is compress ed into the space of a low relief.’. (FOOTNOTE: Movements in Modern Art Cubism, David Cottington, pg. 22)We notice a clear direction towards further abstraction in terms of form and colour and as cubism progresses these abstractions are further emphasised until reality is barely visible and only signals and indications of things are implied to the viewer. In addition, Picasso’s painting held similar elements of Cezanne’s style and although his painting Demoiselles d’ Avingnon is regarded as more of a proto-cubist artwork in a way it planted the seeds of his style which would later blossom and carry the cubist movement. He is still referencing Cezanne in terms of geometric shapes, limited colours, the fusions between negative and positive shapes and also the arbitrary use of light as he sees fit. Moving away from Demoiselles d’ Avingnon and focussing on Cottage and Trees (La Rue-des-Bois) 1908, again we see a direct correlation in terms of style to Cezanne’s and even Braque’s painting Houses at L’Estaque, in terms of subject matter it’s quite similar; fragmented shapes are used to signify a landscape with houses and contorted trees, however this use of shapes is further abstracted from that of Cezanne’s and Braque’s and again we see the use of colour being completely redundant in terms of imitating the world. The painting has become a complex of invented forms, singular viewpoints, accurate proportions and visual representation are no longer necessary, ‘Picasso independently emphasises each elemnt – volume, line, plane, light and shade – even at the expense of compositional unity. The effect is to maximise the dynamic effect of the painting.’. The emancipation of pictorial elements of line and colour elevated the painting to the picture object, as these elements no longer needed to be used objectively to depict the reality in which we are all submitted to, rather the artists can form the basis of a painting from reality and meet it halfway through his use of representing the internal reality which he is mentally experiencing. Cezanne used a process of analysis and reflection in creating his work which then influenced the cubists to constitute their own individual reality and project it onto the canvas. The result being fragmented geometric shapes which accentuate certain elements of figures, subjective and limited use of colour and an overall less naturalistic representation of what is directly being observed, this in turn helped painters like the cubists to re think what they were painting and also to think of what painting in general could be.

Enviromental Issues

These are a few of many environmental issues that are faced in the Coastal Plains, the Western Cordillera, and the Arctic today. The Coastal Plains has many issues that need to be addressed. The Coastal Plains is a flat, low-lying area of land which is beside the sea coast.It stretches smoke along the Ignited States and Mexico. It varies in climate depending on the region. For example in the north, it is defined by snowy and cold winters although in the summer it is hot and humid. In the southern part of the coastal plains it is sub-tropical, which means the winters are usually mild and warm. One of the many environmental issues in the Coastal Plains is urban sprawl (overpopulation). The Texas plains has expanded in population by 1 19% from 1970-90. The consequences of this are a large amount of carbon oxide being emitted into the atmosphere caused by cars and factories.This also contributes to the climate change in the planet and global warming. Along with this, sea levels are risin g and tropical storms/hurricanes are becoming more apparent. A solution to this issue is less usage of cars. If we could use fewer cars and start using more public transportation such as bikes and buses, we could put less carbon dioxide into the environment. We can't fix the overpopulation issue but at least bringing awareness could possibly make a difference. Overall, the Coastal Plains is a beautiful area that needs to have these issues fixed or bringing more awareness to the public.The Western Cordillera is a region in North America with environmental issues that can affect us greatly in the future. The Western Cordillera goes along the west coast of North America. It contains numerous mountains that haven't been worn down by erosion. The climate is usually mild but mostly it is very wet. The issues the Western Cordillera is climate change and clear cutting. Climate change affects this region by impacting future water resources. The jack of snow caused by climate change could mak e water more scarce in the future.Clear cutting is also a severe issue. Clear cutting is when you cut down an entire forest until nothing is left. Consequently, salmon bearing streams are also affected too. The solutions the water issue is less uses of personal transportation. By using fewer cars we can reduce the amount of greenhouse gases and which equals slower effects of global warming. The clear cutting issue can be fixed by regulating what trees can be cut. Cutting the old trees instead of the new growth could help the environment.However, the economy situation would make these possible solutions a challenge to follow. The Arctic could negatively change the Earth if we don't fix the severe issues that are happening at this moment. The Arctic region is a combination of lowlands and mountains. The climate is very severe since because it is not close to the equator. Summers are very short and winter dominates most months. Iron socially, the arctic is a desert because of the littl e amount of precipitation. The Arctic has been very vulnerable to effects of global warming.The Arctic temperatures were raised more than twice than usual over the past century. This can lead to higher sea levels which could possibly be a disaster. Another thing that can happen is the extinction of Arctic animals. With less ice in the region, polar bears have a harder time finding food to eat and then they unfortunately die of starvation. The solution to this issue isn't really possible. Again, using less fossil fuel could possibly help. Possibly bringing awareness about the issue could bring public pressure to the government to do something.However, until that would happen, we can only see the effects climate change has on this region In conclusion, the Coastal Plains, the Western Cordillera, and the Arctic have serious environmental issues that can permanently change the world. The one thing that all of these regions have in common is that they are all effected by climate change/g lobal warming. We can't necessarily stop it but we can do our part to help these regions by not overly using personal transportation and emitting a lot of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Overall, these regions can negatively affect us unless we do something to change it.

Literature Review Graduate Recruitment and Selection

Literature Review: Graduate Recruitment and Selection Recruitment and selection forms the foundation of the core activities and processes underlying human resource management and such activities include the acquisition, training and development, and rewarding performance of workers (Gilmore, and Williams, 2009). The success and sustainability of most organizations is directly proportional to skills and competencies of the employees. Equally, the entry point into any organization is dependent on the effectiveness of the recruitment and selection practices of the hiring team within the organization. In light of this, competition in the UK employment market has increased tremendously over the past few decades. This can be attributed to the inability of the employment market to absorb the growing pool of graduates from institutions of higher learning. According to Mohamed Branine, (2008, p. 497), graduate recruitment is one of the leading and toughest challenges facing the majority of potential employers. Mohamed (2008) argues that the caus es of this phenomenon can be in part due to the complexities associated with the selection of the most qualified individuals and as well, due to the availability of several graduates in different disciplines from Ivy League institutions. To that purpose, the demand for quality graduates will remain highly competitive, the most advantaged recruiters will be those with strong recruitment policies, coupled with exceptional training and development policies. In some instances, financial abilities of potential recruiters will play a substantial role in future graduate recruitment and selection processes. Varied researches and studies have been carried out and written up regarding the aspect of graduate recruitment, the attitudes of graduates, and the attitudes of recruiters with respect to choosing their employers, and as well, the perceptions of graduates towards their formative years in the employment sector. Covered in past researches also includes the influences of management executives on recruiting activities, the strategies and methods used to conduct and communicate information regarding the recruitment process, and reliability and accuracy of the recruiting tools and instruments. Much of this research has, however, concentrated on different aspects within the recruitment and selection process in different organizations across the work. Scope of this Literature Review In setting the context for the research undertaken in this paper, this research limits itself to the discussion of graduate recruitment and selection process in the United Kingdom. It aims to cover the gap that existed in previous researches that have been covered and written up on the field of graduate recruitment and selection process by limiting the aspect of generalizations and concentrating on particular aspects. To that purpose, it will define the concept of graduate recruitment, examine the changes and types in the strategies and methods of graduate recruitment and selection used in UK-based organizations, and identify the reasons behind the variations in the changes and developments. Additionally, this literature review will examine graduate recruitment tools and mechanisms applied in various recruitment processes, and as well, highlight particular aspects that interest employers or recruiters during the graduate recruitment process (Raybould, and Sheedy, 2005). Finally yet i mportant, the literature review will provide a consistent conclusion based on the analysis of the graduate recruitment and selection process in the UK and possibly offer recommendations regarding future researches in general, and the graduate recruitment and selection process in particular. In this literature review, the term ‘graduate’ is used to refer to both undergraduate (bachelor’s degree) and postgraduate (Master’s degree) holders from recognized institutions of higher learning such as college or university. Therefore, any reference made herein referring to graduates will be referring to applicants holding either an undergraduate degree or a postgraduate degree. Majority of individuals in these categories is prepared to handle the complexities associated with diverse forms of employment and work. Simply put, their institutions equipped them with the requisite knowledge and skills required in the employment market. Graduate Recruitment and Selection Graduate recruitment and selection forms an essential part in the central activities underlying the management of human resources within many organizations. These activities include the acquisition of talent, training and developing the talent, and eventually rewarding the performance of the acquired talent. As such, the recruitment and selection process forms an integral part of the works undertaken by human resource management and other specialists involved in the graduate and recruitment process. According to Mohamed Branine (2008, p. 500) â€Å"graduate recruitment and selection process refers to the process of searching for and obtaining potential job applicants from graduates in sufficient quantity and quality so that potential employers can select the most suitable candidates to fill in their job vacancies (p. 500).† Universally, there is commonly accepted strategy or commonly agreed procedure of recruiting and selecting graduates due to the different recruiting needs a nd selection methods among many employers. The differences and variations in recruiting and selection methods among employers are dependent on the operations, size, and needs (Sackett Lievens, 2008). The graduate recruitment and selection process is structured in such a manner that it involves planned rational activities comprising of particular sequentially linked phases within the employee resourcing process. Graduate recruitment and selection process comprises of two aspects that can be broken down to its constituent parts. Having defined ‘graduate’ to refer to undergraduate and postgraduate degree holders, the terms ‘recruitment’ and ‘selection’ can be defined as separate constituent parts. ‘Recruitment’ entails the process of generating a pool of capable people who qualify to apply for employment positions in certain organizations. On the other hand, ‘selection’ refers to the process of whereby managers and recruiting officials utilize specific instruments to choose particular individuals from a pool of applicants in which a person or persons are more likely to succeed in that particular job position and this is mainly dependent on the goals of management and respective legal requirements. Raybould, and Sheedy, (2005, p. 63) posit that, however the two functions (recruitment and selection) are closely connected, each func tion calls for the application of different sets of skill and expertise, and they are fulfilled different members within the hiring process. As such, the recruitment activity can be outsourced to outside agencies but the selection cannot be outsourced and this explains the reason as to why it is advantageous to treat the two items separately. Speaking of the roles, the recruitment and selection process plays a pivotally important role in any organization as far as shaping the performance and effectiveness is concerned. For instance, if organizations are capable of acquiring workers with the requisite skills, knowledge, and aptitudes, then, it becomes obvious that these organizations are capable of making accurate predictions regarding the future abilities of the selected employees/workers. This premise suggests that following an effective and efficient strategy in recruiting and selecting workers enables organizations to avoid undesirable costs such as high staff turnover costs, poor performance among workers, and dissatisfied customers (Raybould, and Sheedy, 2005). Eventually, it engenders a mutually beneficial employment relationship within the organization and it can be evidenced by increased commitment among the involved workers. To this purpose, the recruitment and selection process forms an integral part in the orga nizational process of leading and managing people and the recruitment and selection process is increasingly important in the strengthening of competitive advantage within that organization. The UK Graduate Recruitment and Selection The objective of this review is to examine and uncover the effectiveness of the recruitment and selection process among UK-based organizations. As noted, graduate recruitment and selection process forms an essential part in the central activities underlying the management of human resources within many organizations (Gilmore, and Williams, 2009). These activities include the acquisition of talent, training and developing the talent, and eventually rewarding the performance of the acquired talent. Mohamed (2008, p. 497), even though the number of individuals entering the higher education market has doubled over the past two decades, many employers still find it difficult to recruit the type of employees that fulfill their hiring needs and requirements. The list of desirable qualities among employers has become sophisticated desirable qualities from job applicants. The Association of Graduate Recruiters reports recruitment and hiring agencies receive thousands of applications from grad uates, but the employers still find it difficult to find the applicants who meet their quality. Could there be a problem with the recruiting and selection process? Do graduate applicants fail to fulfill the hiring needs, qualities, or qualifications? These are examples of questions that need answers in order to understand the reasons as to why employers still find it difficult to get the right candidates for their jobs (Shiona, 2010). Despite the availability of limited vacancies, potential employers have had to cope with increased volumes of job applicants. Mohamed (2008) argues that employers in the UK search for graduates, who are capable of adding value to their economic strength and well, enhance their reputation. Employers often recruit workers whom they can train and develop in order to utilize their skills and knowledge (Roberts, 2005). Nevertheless, what does it take to be a good graduate? What processes do employers use to identify good graduates? Another important revelation of the recruitment and selection process within the UK job industry is the relationship betwe en the employment (graduate) labor market and the higher education sector. While higher education is supposed to nurture and prepare graduates for the job market by enhancing knowledge and learning, it is not their duty to secure employment opportunities for the graduates. This can be attributed to the fact that the higher education market is responsible for preparing graduates to fit the needs of different employment sectors thereby making it difficult to provide training to specific individuals. An exploratory study by Carless (2007) revealed that institutions of higher learning play critical roles in ensuring efficiency and efficacy among graduates. Studies by Silvester, Anderson, Haddleton, Cunningham-snell, and Gibb (2000, p. 16) point out that the graduate recruitment and selection process in the UK has undergone tremendous changes in the recent past and the majority of such changes entail the streamlining of selection procedures to reduce costs. Among the highly adopted strat egies are the use virtual selection methods such video interviews, telephones, and internet means. Traditionally, organizations in the UK recruiting industry found it a lot easier to recruit candidates from the list of job applicants, who accepted any form of job offering (Mohamed, 2008, p. 498). In the contemporary UK job market, thousands of applicants can apply for vacant job positions but it becomes a difficult task to recruit the ideal candidate. This can be attributed to the different trends and developments that have occurred in the recruitment and selection methods. Increased competition among graduate employers, technological advancements, and socio-economic and political changes are other factors that have led to complexities in the recruitment and selection processes. Keenan (2005) postulates that the recruitment and selection process in the UK follows a sequential process referred to as the resourcing cycle. Resourcing cycle of the recruitment and selection process As earlier mentioned, the recruitment and selection process follows some defined sequences characterized by distinct and inter-linked stages. These sequences are referred to as the resourcing cycle of the recruitment and selection process. This cycle begins when graduates identify an available vacancy and ends when the selected candidate lives up to the expectation of the case by performing to the required standards. To graduate, the organization is a prospective employer while to the organization the candidate is evaluated to fill the vacancy (Raybould, and Sheedy, 2005). In order to ensure that best candidates are selected to a particular post, it is forcefully crucial that the recruitment and selection process be handled in a timely and professional manner characterized by effectiveness and efficiency. The first step of the recruitment and selection process entails the announcement of a vacant position within an organization. This move is subject to thorough decision-making by members of the management regarding the strategic impacts within their organization (Tineke, Maddy, 2008). At times, situations exist where a vacant position resulting after an employee leaves are organization is replaced with automated machines. If the decision is made that, the vacant position requires to be filled, job specifications are drawn down to reflect the duties and requirements needed for that job in addition to requisite skills, experiences, and personal attributes. The next step involves the process of attracting candidates in order to produce a large pool of applicants from where the ideal candidate will be selected. Very often this function of the recruitment and selection process are outsourced to recruiting and hiring agencies in order to eliminate the number of unsuitable candidates applyi ng for the vacant position. The third step is the resourcing cycle that entails shortlisting the number of candidates to a manageable level whereby it will be easy to make an employment decision (Tineke Maddy, 2008). The selection process generates an optimum number of job seekers and the majority of applicants are rejected during this stage. Many things happen during this stage because the recruitment tools and strategies are applied during this stage including interviews, face-to-face meetings, and other forms of communicating the selection procedure. Once the recruiting tools and methods have been utilized, recruitment decisions are made and the actual selection is made. Nonetheless, the selection process does not mark the end of the job recruitment and selection exercise because their abilities and capabilities to perform the allotted job to maximum cannot be ascertained. To avoid uncertainties regarding the capabilities of selected individuals, a probationary period is imposed whereby the performance and potential of employees is assessed and evaluated. This period marks the transition period or the post selection phase where the selected employees are inducted and integrated into the organization. This is a critical process because the selected candidates are taught several issues relating to the organization such as the organizational culture, normal routines, and ethical processes within the organization. The final stage under the resourcing cycle is the evaluation of the entire post-selection process and conducting a reflec tion of the lessons learnt from the entire process and as well, suggesting future implications. Statistics of Variations in Recruitment and Selection methods According to survey findings undertaken to determine the causes of variations in recruitment methods used by employers in UK, each year, 91 per cent of employers and potential graduate recruits prefer the internet as the ideal method for large organizations (Mohamed, 2008, p. 504). Closely behind the internet at 89 per cent was the use of career literature such as Prospects, Prospects Today, and GET directory ((Mohamed, 2008, p. 504). Other methods such as milk rounds and career fairs were less popular after the survey findings estimated its popularity at 45 per cent each while recruitment agencies was the least popular at 15 per cent (Mohamed, 2008, p. 504). Similarly, the survey also considered the cause of variations in terms of selection methods used by employers in the UK graduate recruitment and selection industry (Mohamed, 2008, p. 506). From the survey, the use of CVs and Cover letters was mostly preferred by small and medium-sized employers while the use of assessment centers and aptitude tests were less preferred by most employers (Mohamed, 2008, p. 506). Shortlisting of respondents before inviting them for the interview was also revealed as one of the commonly used selection methods (Mohamed, 2008, p. 506). In situations where interviews were conducted, a combination of both single and panel interviews was used with variations in compositions of members in the interviewing panel (Mohamed, 2008, p. 506). Speaking of reasons for the variations in recruiting and selection methods among the graduates, accuracy and relevancy of the selection and recruitment methods seemed to be the overriding factor (Mohamed, 2008, p. 508). To that purpose, employers cited the employer application form as being the most accurate and reliable method for assessing the characteristics and qualities of potential employees (Mohamed, 2008, p. 508). This can be attributed to fact that employer application forms provided high levels of accuracy when gathering information, assessing the company’s competencies, and as well, in simplification of the selection process (Mohamed, 2008, p. 508). In terms of cost saving, the CV and covering letter provided the highest cost saving levels due to the ease of sending and in providing more information. Equally noteworthy was the use of interviews in gathering crucial but first information about the applicants. The two-interaction, fairness, ability to fill gaps left b y other forms, and the ease of validation were cited as the factors that promoted the use of interviews in the selection process (Mohamed, 2008, p. 508). Types of Graduate Recruitment and Selection Methods Milk Round This recruitment method involves the process of conducting annual recruitment programs during career fairs different institutions of higher learning whereby potential employers and companies converge to give public lectures, presentations, and as well meet and/or interview final year students. This strategy was immensely popular in the UK some two decades ago before the expansion and development of the information age. Additionally, companies advertise and promote the available employment opportunities directly to the participating students. Many a time, the associated companies involved in these milk rounds had periodic graduate trainee programs that were specifically developed and designed to absorb fresh graduates, train them, and provide the requisite exposure to issues relating to the business world. Career services such as university outreach programmes and linkages were responsible for organizing the trade fairs in liaison with particular companies. However, this method slowly lost its popularity due to technological advancements and increased use of the internet. Most companies have created web-based recruitment strategies such as CV databases, job boards, and recruiting agencies. Companies have even gone to an extent of using the internet for job advertising, filling online application forms, and even conducting online tests such aptitude tests (Mohamed, (2008, p.500). Employee Referrals The current employees within the organization can act as a rich source of providing linkages to potential recruits. They might hold vital information about graduates who can match the available position within the organization and such individuals might not be in a position of responding to normal recruitment methods (Shiona, 2010). This can be attributed to the fact that most of such employees might be occupied in other jobs and might not be actively searching for job placements. However, they might be enticed to look for other available employment opportunities if the right opportunity presents itself along the way. Such a strategy can be encouraged by offering bonuses to employees who provide leads through referrals. Recruitment Brochures, Magazines, and Print Media This involves the use of graduate recruitment literature such as GET Directories, and Prospects of the UK because these brochures are direct targets for most graduates. Organizational recruitment brochures are also availed to participants during graduate recruitment fairs. Other forms that are still increasingly used by prospective employers and companies include advertisement in local dailies and newspaper whereby job adverts are placed on the adverts and targets potential applicants due to the increased velocity of their circulation and area of coverage. Advertisements Although it can be related to the above-mentioned forms of job recruitment methods and techniques, advertisements form an ideal method that is increasingly utilized by employers to market their job vacancies and openings. Adverts are often placed on local newspapers, and online platforms. Majority of adverts are found on job websites because job seekers frequently visit such websites. Job Databases This involves maintaining a job filling system or job database for prospective employers using resumes and CVs that have been collected over extended periods. Such CVs and Resumes might have been collected from career fairs, manual deliveries, and as well from the company’s mail system. Once a job opening avails itself within the organization, the people responsible for recruiting services visit the database and select potential employees from the available list. Employment Agencies Recruiting agencies specialize in the provision of job recruitment initiatives whereby they screen job applicants are subjected to tests relative to the positions they have applied for, based on their skills and qualifications. The costs of utilizing services from the recruiting agency might be high but they offer the best services in terms of selecting the ideal candidates for particular positions (Roberts, 2005). The long-term rewards are often advantageous to the hiring organization. Internal Recruiting This recruitment method is one of the most essential strategies of filling up available vacancies because the current employees within an organization can be suited to fill up positions that have opened up within their organizations. This employee matching strategy reduces the costs associated with other traditional hiring methods. Hiring employees from within enables a company to obtain increased value in terms of employee relation benefits. Equally noteworthy is the idea that hired employees from within often demand lower compensation as compared to hiring employees from external sectors. Lastly, internal recruiting enables companies to decrease their expenditure turnovers through the provision of advancement opportunities for existing employees. Career and Recruitment Fairs Career and recruitment fairs are often ideal places for promoting entry-level jobs for fresh graduates and as well, for those individuals, who are willing to change their jobs. Responsible organs within many universities in conjunction with respective companies organize majority of recruitment and career fairs. Such places are also ideal for enabling potential employers to collect CVs and resumes to be used in future vacancies. Graduate Recruitment mechanism/tools The mechanisms used to select graduates for various positions vary from one recruiter to the other and it depends on the type of job being offered. Commonly used mechanisms and tools include face-to-face interviews, internet, agencies, and tests, among others. Face-to-face Interviews This is the most commonly used recruitment strategy among many employers in the graduate recruitment and selection process within the UK. Job applicants are required to appear before a panel of interviewers whereby general assessment is undertaken. Among the aspects examined during the interview is verification of the originality of documents and testimonials, cross-examining the application to find out the reasons and interests for applying the job, gauging his/her awareness and knowledge concerning matters within the industry. During specific interview sessions, the interviews are technically focused on the examination of particular details regarding the position, job description, and personality traits. The applicant is subjected to a series of questions and tests to determine different capabilities and levels of sustenance for the interviewee (Gill, Banks, 1978). Follow-up questions are often directed to applicants to probe deeply into more details about the applicant including his special skills, points of difference, and qualifications. Recruitment Agencies Recruitment agencies are gaining increased popularity within the UK job industry particularly in the search of graduates and executive talent. This mechanism is one of the most expensive mediums irrespective of whether an organization uses the retainer or the contingency firm. Recruiting agencies specialize in the provision of job recruitment initiatives whereby they screen job applicants and subject them to tests relative to the positions they have applied based on their skills and qualifications. Recruitment agencies are experienced in matching the qualifications of candidates faster than the speed with which other organizations are capable of achieving (Roberts, 2005). Most recruiting agencies have job databases with details of thousands of applicants in addition to having a wider access to potential employees. Similarly, they have greater access to the criteria needed by the hiring companies. Online Application The internet is one of the fastest and cheapest mechanisms of recruiting workers when compared to other traditional methods of recruiting workers. Organizations wishing to recruit workers often post their jobs to internet sites for a modest period where they remain available 24-hours a day. Potential job applicants will be able to view the detailed information about the job opening and position being advertised and send their responses through electronic means. Organizations will be able to screen the applications by assessing the experience of applicants, their skills, and qualifications, and matching them with the skills required in that particular job. Due to advancements in technology, online screening processes and systems are capable of performing automatic filtering of applications send to the receiving mail. This mechanism often enables the organization to filter large volumes of job applications sent to the company. Psychometric Testing This hiring mechanism is often conducted by qualified staff and involves subjecting applicants a wide range of tests. To that purpose, psychometric testing covers varied abilities of applicants include personality profiling, ability testing, and aptitude testing. Such tests often involve two levels-A and B (Sackett, and Lievens, 2008). The first level involves aptitude testing and ability testing whereas the second level B involves personality profiling. Aptitude tests and ability tests covers a wide range of aspects that include mechanical abilities, numerical ability, verbal ability, general intelligence, sensory. and motor abilities. This strategy often allows feedback to be offered to participants. Personality profiling involves testing particular behaviors of applicants by subjecting them to things that might affect their suitability for some posts (Sackett, and Lievens, 2008). Presentations and group exercises Presentations involve giving applicants a particular topic and asking them to deliver a presentation on that topic within a given period. On the other hand, group exercises encompass the division of applicants into particular groups and selecting a role-play or discussion from where every member of the group will be expected to contribute. At the end of the exercise, the group should be in a position of coming up with a meaningful project to enable them to acquire marks. Interests of employers The interests of employers during the graduate recruitment and selection process vary from employer to employer, and depend on the type vacancy. Within these factors are varied aspects such as skills, qualifications, knowledge, experience, organizational capabilities, team spirit, and resilience, among others. To this purpose, graduates should prepare extensively when called for interviews by being committed to the needs and requirements of the recruitment and selection process. Any misunderstanding should be communicated in advance. According to survey findings from Mohamed (2008, p. 508), employers expectations varied depending on the size and nature of operations within the organization (p. 508). Good transferable skills was more preferred to having excellent academic grades. As such, only 21 per cent of respondents argued that the level of degree qualification was more important as compared the degree subject. However, a large percentage (87 per cent) stated that the degree classification was more important than other factors. Summary of the Review The graduate recruitment and selection process in the United Kingdom has undergone various changes over the past few decades and this is likely to bring an impact to future recruitment and selection processes. This can be attributed to the inability of the employment market to absorb the growing pool of graduates from institutions of higher learning. The demand for quality graduates will remain highly competitive, and the most advantaged recruiters will be those with strong recruitment policies, coupled with exceptional training and development policies. Traditionally, organizations in the UK recruiting industry found it a lot easier to recruit candidates from the list of job applicants who accepted any form of job offering (Mohamed, 2008, p. 498). In the contemporary UK job market, thousands of applicants can apply for vacant job positions but it becomes a difficult task to recruit the ideal candidates.